Many situations in the Asian reality threaten and contradict harmony. These negative factors have to be acknowledged and reckoned with. Reflection on harmony and its presentation, as a singularly Asian contribution towards peace and understanding in the world, must not be misunderstood as escapism or wishful thinking. The Federation of Asian Bishops' Conferences has always followed the same method and approach in its many conferences and seminars -- to start from the analysis of the real situation in its many facets and to base its faith-reflections on the data thus perceived. The Final Statement of the Sixth Plenary Assembly of the FABC in Manila 1995 declared: "We turned our attention to whatever threatens, weakens, diminishes and destroys the life of individuals, groups or peoples; whatever devalues human beings, conceived, born, infant, old; whatever socio-cultural, religious, political, economic, or environmental factor that threatens or destroys life in our countries. We identified some of these forces of death at work in Asia."

1.1.1  Economic Exploitation and Poverty

        The UN economic and social commission for Asia and the Pacific, in its report published in 1991, states that progress in the living conditions and quality of life in the region has not kept pace with the economic growth achieved. Economic development has resulted in "dehumanization," manifested in joblessness, hopelessness, violence, street-crime, drug-abuse, prostitution and child labor. Besides disrupting the harmonious integration of the human person, such situations have affected family unity and disrupted national harmony. The meager improvement in living conditions and living standards that has sometimes been achieved, has often been offset by new social problems like urbanization and modernization. Urbanization has resulted in the transfer of rural poverty to the urban setting. Modernization has resulted in social and cultural dislocation, where traditional values and accepted attitudes, like community, simplicity, sincerity, have been questioned and abandoned. Subsequently, secularism, materialism and consumerism and their offshoots, individualism, competition, exploitation, are becoming accepted ideologies of a new middle class indifferent to the marginalized (Cf. FABC Papers, No. 59, p. 27).
        In recent years many Asian countries have experienced a marked increase in industrialization, combined with economic growth. This process is linked to and dependent on the phenomenon of an increasing economic globalization. The flow of foreign capital from both the West and the more-developed East Asian countries gives rise to methods of production and the introduction of technologies which are beyond the present capabilities of some of our Asian countries to absorb without trauma.
        The fast economic growth in Asia often breeds a mentality of "getting rich fast." The consequence is that corruption at all levels of society increases: in administration, business and educational facilities, down to the private sector. This occurrence of widespread corruption threatens the proper functioning of political life in some Asian countries, and undermines the trust of the people in authority at many levels.
        Although the majority of our economies are still rural and agricultural, the gross neglect of this sector has a negative and devastating impact on the lives of individuals and communities. The once self-sustaining economies and rural communities, both traditional and tribal, are the most affected by these trends. The depreciation of the rural economy has depressing implications for the future of rural communities. The process of economic globalization is often not attuned to the patterns of social life in many Asian countries, and thus poses a threat to the traditional cosmic world-view and its value system. The predominance of economic interests leads to a dichotomy between economic concerns and religious values, between pure economic development and the human person.
        In spite of the considerable economic growth in many Asian countries, there are multitudes of people excluded from a just share in the profits thus accumulated. The distribution of wealth is not functioning, because the few rich become richer, whereas millions are kept in poverty and destitution. Linked to this disparity between the poor and the rich is the problem of large-scale migrations of younger people to the cities, where most of the developments are taking place, for better job opportunities, education and entertainment. The growing urbanization leads to over-crowded cities and to social ills like drug-trafficking, prostitution and gambling.
        Fundamental changes in work-patterns, in the basic structure of our economies, and in the very nature of relationships among individuals, are rife. People become a mechanical part of the production process and, as a result, work becomes exploitative and dehumanizing. This becomes strikingly clear in the phenomenon of migrant workers or overseas contract workers. There are three million Asians working in other Asian countries, not counting the number of those working elsewhere overseas. To a great extent the migrant workers consist of women whose basic human dignity is often not respected. They are not only considered to be cheap laborers, but many are sexually harassed and abused.
        In some countries the laws of the land have little concern for foreigners, and especially for women. Often the migrant workers are denied the right to practice their religion freely. This is the case in nearly all the Arab Muslim countries in West Asia. Their home countries, on the other side, expect from them foreign exchange, but do little to safeguard their rights as human beings. The problem of migrant workers is acute for countries like the Philippines, which has an exceptionally high number of overseas workers, mostly women, but also for India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.
        The breakdown of the extended family, which has traditionally provided economic, social and physical security to its members, is endangering the very roots of the social fabric in Asian societies. "We realized how the forces of death undermine the family, the basic cell of society and the Church, through liberal, anti-life, anti-child, anti-woman, anti-family policies and values and pose many threats to wholeness of life in the area of health care, especially of the poor" (FABC VI, Manila, 1995, no. 7).

1.1.2  Oppressive Forms of Government and Social Control

        Across the vast continent of Asia we can observe many forms of governments which have developed after the end of the colonial era and during the period of resistance to neo-colonialism. As for political regimes, we have a totalitarian military junta in Myanmar, a hardline communist system in North Korea, a pragmatic communism with emphasis on economic progress in China and Vietnam, a constitutional monarchy in Thailand, an English-type parliamentary democracy in India and Malaysia, and still a colonial system in Hong Kong and Macao. The nation-state is being increasingly replaced by "statism," that is, the imposition of an artificial harmony through oppressive state power, especially in China, Vietnam and North Korea. Militant fundamentalism and religious fundamentalism are motivated by political power, social control or economic greed which has further resulted in division rather than unity.
        Asia is home to over sixty percent of humanity. In many Asian countries, the escalating rate of population increase and its accompanying pressure on Asian resources are seen as problems ranking high on the agenda of government control. The administrative measures taken by several Asian governments to control population growth are running counter to basic human rights and ethical norms. The insistence of religious groups, including the Christian Churches, on the defense of the rights of families to have children and the personal dignity and inviolability of women, are seen by governments, often, as interference in purely secular matters not belonging to the religious realm.
        Governments in various Asian states are suspicious of all forms of contextual theologies which empower people to analyze their situation and to take action to remedy it, because they seem to threaten the much-valued internal security by introducing political ideology in the guise of religious teachings. The call for social change and justice, for respect of human rights and democratic representation, is declared to be no business at all for religious persons and institutions. Governments in various Asian states have accused and continue to accuse, for example, liberation theologians of abusing religion for political purposes. The prophetic critical function these theologians claim to exercise is seen by the governments as disturbing the peaceful and harmonious relationship between the government and institutionalized religions. In their view, the task of religions and Churches is to strengthen the existing social order and to concentrate on fulfilling their religious duties of worshipping God and praying for the welfare of the community.

1.2  Religious, Cultural and Communal Conflicts

        Asia is the womb of ancient cultures and civilizations, and this is reflected in its cultural diversity. However, this richness of the diverse cultures has not always been positively appreciated, and this has led to cultural disharmony. The Asian peoples have seen the emergence of cultural imperialism, imposing the values of a domineering majority or of an assertive minority on the rest of society. Such a move, far from serving the cause of unity, has given rise to division and conflict. Asia is also the birthplace of the world's great religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Shintoism, Sikhism and Taoism.
        In spite of the common Asian world-view which perceives reality as "one," and in spite of a widespread tolerance which subscribes to a basic equality among all religious convictions, Asian religious pluralism remains a problem. The problem is acute, because Asian religions still constitute a powerful force controlling the consciences of people and influencing every area of their social life. As such, they can serve to bring together peoples and nations in unity and harmony, or cause division and fragmentation. Sadly, to a large extent, the latter has been the experience of the Asian peoples.
        As there is a strong bond between religion and culture, fundamentalism and communalism have given rise to numerous conflicts and bloody violence. Such conflicts and violence, besides having disrupted harmony, have also resulted in the loss of human lives and the destruction of sacred temples, especially in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, all in the name of religious affiliation and cultural patrimony. In Sri Lanka, conflicts between ethnic and linguistic groups have been a cause of continual violence and bloodshed. The events surrounding the razing of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya in December, 1992 have demonstrated how devastating the forces of religious fundamentalism can become. In the whole of the Indian subcontinent, there have been clashes between Muslims and Hindus, during which Hindus were chasing the Muslims in Bombay, and Muslims retaliating by persecuting Hindus and destroying their temples in Pakistan and Bangladesh.

1.3  Ecological and Environmental Crisis

        As a result of the earth summit in Brazil in 1992, the magnitude of the environmental-degradation problem has been perceived and recognized as a threat to the survival of the entire human race. Many of the issues raised on the global level and in the "South" are particularly relevant for Asia, namely, sustainable agriculture, deforestation, pollution, protection of oceans and coastal areas, population control, and environmentally-sound management of biotechnology and hazardous wastes. It is only the most shocking examples of environmental breakdown which fully engage the public. Full-blown disasters, such as the poisoning of slum-dwellers at Bhopal in India, or the fatal spills of toxic gases and wastes in South Korea or Thailand generally elicit an immediate government response. There are, however, other kinds of ecological problems less well known to people. These include soil erosion, the despoiling of watershed areas, wetlands and fishing zones, loss or ruin of farmland due to industrial expansion, and increased disease and morbidity caused by air pollution.
        One of the most trying issues in Asia is the harmful use of pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers. The chemicals used have had adverse effects on the yield of crops, on health and on the ecosystem. Millions of farmers throughout Asia are painfully discovering that the expensive pesticides they have been using, hoping to increase farm-yields, have not only left them poorer, but have also made the crops more vulnerable to disease. The chemicals used have also eliminated the enemies of the rice pest.
        One major problem is the pollution of the atmosphere due to the increased concentration of "greenhouse" gases, mainly from fuel combustion. Deforestation and logging further exacerbate the problem by reducing the capacity of the forests to function as "sinks" for the carbon dioxide emissions that contribute to global warming. Furthermore, deforestation destroys the ecosystem functions of the forest, thus depriving major sectors of the rural population, especially the poor, of their resources of food, water and livelihood.
        The increased depletion of marine resources and the use of coastal waters as a dumping ground for wastes create another serious problem. While countries with no natural coral reefs are creating artificial ones to attract marine life and protect their coastal waters, natural coral reefs in other countries are being threatened by megatourism projects, pollution, and destructive fishing methods.

1.4  Abuse of Science and Technology

        It is becoming increasingly evident that science and technology as taught and practiced today have acquired an elitist character totally alien to the needs of the masses of the people. Furthermore, scientific progress and technological development, imported and practiced by the Third World elite, are mainly profit-oriented and not person-oriented. The credibility of modern science has been seriously brought into question with the startling rise in the occurrence of major high-tech disasters. Once again, the victims are the poor masses of the developing countries, whose needs are often neglected or overlooked, and consequently their lives are disrupted and fragmented.
        Looking at the scientific progress with regard to birth and the transplanting of organs, we see the need for a human and global ethic and morality. Just as we are concerned about the conservation of the human habitat, in alignment with the goal of creation, there should be a concern for an ethic of harmony. Biotechnology, with all the blessings that it has to offer, is not without its adverse effects. Related to these effects are the myths about biotechnology, that it is ecologically safe and that it will launch a period of chemical-free agriculture. Moreover, as regulations and bans delay tests and marketing in the North, biotechnology products will be increasingly tested in the South to bypass regulations and public control. Here again, Third World countries used as guinea pigs will be the ones who suffer the consequences. Genetic engineering, geared towards better quality or higher productivity with its known and unknown risks, health hazards and side-effects, is still indiscriminately used, affecting the lives of individuals, families and peoples.
        The creation and production of weapons of catastrophic powers that could destroy the planet or parts of it are another horrendous consequence of the distorted use of technology. A good part of Third World resources has been directed at producing and sustaining armaments, thus involving Asia in the nuclear weapons industry and nuclear arms-race. Even if these weapons have not been used, the intensity of violence inherent in this enterprise discloses how modern science has become a major source of active violence against human beings and living organisms, thereby becoming an agent of disruption and disharmony. Asia is one of the most militarized zones in the world. Military budgets have increased in nearly all Asian countries. There is a process whereby military values, ideology, and patterns of behavior continue to seep not only into the political life but also into the structures of social, cultural and educational life of Asian countries.
        The phenomenal progress in the technology of mass communications has truly made the world a global village, but a global village where the voices of a few dominate. Ninety percent of the news articles, radio broadcasts, films and television programs circulating in the world come from the United States, Japan or a handful of European countries. In this way, they have exerted immense control and influence over the culture and way of life of our Asian people, thereby creating the transnationalization of culture of the developed world. These imbalances in the flow of information are further aggravated by local government censorship and control. Local governments often tend to allow a free flow to the international media, but control and curtail the local media.

1.5  The Burden of Christian History

        As Christians we see our past as "a history of salvation," a history graced by the touch and guidance of the Holy Spirit. Yet, it is also a human history, a record of human failings, prejudice, bias and infidelity to the promptings of the Spirit. From the wellsprings of the past we draw faith and hope, but the past is also a burden we carry. To be unaware of this burden is to run the risk of repeating the mistakes of the past and increasing the burden.

1.5.1  Mission History

        From the Asian perspective, mission history from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century presents Christianity as intruding on Asian harmony or as the "period of Christianity conquering all the other religions and cultures for Christ" (A. Pieris). There was an alternative approach advanced by Jesuit missionaries in India and China which advocated adapting Christianity to local culture and religions; but this was cut short by the so-called "rites controversy" and the subsequent condemnation of the methods employed. This put an end to a promising episode in the history of Christian mission in Asia. But it also posed, for the first time, the problem of the inculturation of Christianity in Asian cultures and religious traditions.
        It took the Church a long time to face the problem and to correct the harsh condemnation of the past, by allowing Christians to participate in the veneration of ancestors, declaring in the 1930s that the old condemnations no longer applied. Finally, in 1970 at Manila, we find an acknowledgement of faults and mistakes made at the time of the rites controversy. In the final declaration of their conference, the Asian bishops said: "In the inculturation of the life and message of the Gospel in Asia there have been hesitations and mistakes in the past" (For All the Peoples of Asia, G. B. Rosales & C. G. Arevalo eds, Claretian Publications-Orbis Books, Quezon City-New York, 1992.)
        This basic negative attitude of the Church and Christian theology towards other Asian cultures and religions accounts for much of the failure of the Christian mission to strike roots in Asia and to come to a genuine encounter with the religious traditions of Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam and the many other Asian religions.

1.5.2  Divisions Within Christianity

        Another burden of history is the fragmentation of Christianity. Beginning with the Great Schism of 1054 and culminating in the fateful disputes caused by the Reformation, Western Christianity split into bickering sects. The missionary enterprise of Western Christian Churches has been marred by these divisions, which often had, in addition to theological roots, European national, ethnic, social or economic roots. The missionary effort has been seen as an attempt to export to Asia enmities and divisions which have no roots in Asian soil. The spectacle of missionary societies bickering over territories and denouncing their rivals as false Christians has truly been a stumbling block to Asia.

2.1  Socio-PoIitical Attempts

2.1.1  PoliticaI Systems and ldeologies

2.1.1.1  Monarchy

        Constitutional monarchies exist in Japan, Thailand, Malaysia and Brunei. In these countries, kings continue to be the crowning symbol of people's aspirations for national unity and for their place in the society of nations. They serve as a visible and highly-regarded link with the past and the ancestral heritage in a fast-changing world. Although they rarely intervene in political affairs, the kings provide an anchor of stability in times of political turmoil. There is always the lurking danger of this institution reverting to old abusive ways, but in general, not only the king but often the queen and other members of the royal family, render invaluable social service to the people.

2.1.1.2  Democracy

        Democracy as a form of government came to Asia at the end of the colonial period. It is therefore perceived as almost synonymous with self-rule. Indeed, democracy is based on the realization of the dignity of every person and every citizen's responsibility to build the nation. It presupposes an insight into personhood as essentially relational and social. Expressed basically in the right to vote its leaders into office, a democratic form of government attempts to promote harmony not only on the political level, but even on the economic level. It aims to defend the rights of every citizen, regardless of color, sex, social status or creed.
        There are two forms of democracy in Asia: the parliamentary and the presidential, depending on whether the prime minister or the president is the chief executive of the government. As Asians gain experience in living as citizens of democracies, they are understandably adapting the system to their ancient cultures. Sometimes the ideals of democracy are not fully upheld. Still, the present-day alternative to it in Asia is military rule or communist party rule. As people develop, the option is more and more on the side of democracy.

2.1.1.3  Nationalistic/State Ideology

        As Asian peoples struggled against colonialism, or resisted the incursion of neo-colonialism, some found it necessary to establish a common ideology that would unite the people, assure victory over the enemy, and attain prosperity for all. The common ideology aims at establishing national unity by resolving cultural differences. In Asia, where most countries are marked by the presence of multifarious cultural groups, this political step attempts to maximize the unity of cultures, while preserving a minimum of their plurality. The success of this strategy depends on massive education and campaigns to gain popular support.
        However, this approach can easily become detrimental to the authentic human development of the people involved. While there could be seeming harmony, there could also be repression of human rights by an overbearing state power. It seems that some Asian countries have fallen into this quandary, like China, Vietnam, North Korea and Sri Lanka, which are mentioned here for the sake of illustration. However, the danger is present everywhere, though perhaps in a milder form in some countries. Some governments are so intent on preserving a much-valued internal security or political stability, that they become over-suspicious of calls for social change and social justice, respect for human rights and democratic representations. When such calls are made by Church-affiliated groups, like those espousing liberation theology, a crack down by the government on the Church is a predictable result.
        A particularly-touchy issue is population control. Some governments take it as their prerogative to set the limits of population growth, to be achieved by means imposed by the government.
        As both sides, the governments and particular groups, especially those promoting human rights, gain experience in resolving their conflicts, it is hoped that state ideologies will be made responsive to deeper human aspirations, and thereby become authentically constructive forces for attaining harmony.

2.1.1.4  "Pancasila" (Indonesia)

        Known as the "Five Principles" of (1) belief in one Supreme God, (2) sovereignty of the people, (3) deliberation to arrive at consensus, (4) humanitarianism, and (5) social justice, this ideology is based on the cultural heritage of the Indonesian cosmic world-view, and is influential in the ancient Hindu kingdoms of Sriwijaya in Sumatra and Majapahit in Java.
        This cosmic world-view has an impact on the Indonesian way of life among various sectors of society. It serves as an "instrument" in human efforts to successfully cope with the problems of life. Reality is described as a universe out of which a meaningful structure is derived for the realm of human experiences. The world, human society and nature are seen as interrelated, and they make up one single field of experiences. The meaningfulness of this interrelationship is expressed in the psychological state of tranquility, peacefulness and interior equilibrium. Social interactions express attitudes towards nature, and the attitudes to nature are seen as socially relevant too.
        Three main aspects can be clearly distinguished: (1) the extrovert aspect, common among the illiterate and those in rural areas, focuses on the outer world consisting of nature, society and the sacred or the super-natural; this aspect is celebrated in the rites; (2) the exercise of political power or authority as expression of the numinous or the "divine" reality; (3) the focus on the experience of one's self as a path towards unity with the numinous -- a path culminating in mystical experience.

2.1.1.5  Non-Violence

        Non-violence, is an approximate rendering of the Sanskrit term ahimsa (lit. "no harm"), and it was coined as an English word under the influence of Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948), and his approach to political conflict. It is this particular aspect of non-violence that will be treated here. Gandhi initially achieved public notice as a leader of India's national struggle for independence, and as a champion of non-violent techniques for resolving political conflicts. Gandhi broadened the ancient Jain and Hindu concept prohibiting physical violence. For him, non-violence was a moral stance involving love for and affirmation of all life. By combining the notion of non-violence with traditional means of protest, Gandhi made movements of non-violent non-cooperation into instruments of significant political power.
        By employing non-violence as an essential element of the consensus style of decision-making, traditionally practiced by India's village councils (panchayat), Gandhi developed a novel method of conflict resolution which he called satyagraha ("truth force"). He applied this term to his campaigns for India's independence and to his way of dealing with differences of opinion in everyday life. Gandhi regarded non-violence as the litmus test that would reveal where truth is to be found. In Gandhi's view, any form of coercion or intimidation was violent and to be abhorred.
        Since Gandhi's death, unfortunately, neither Indian society nor Hindu belief has been restructured along Gandhian lines. But the Gandhian approach has been kept alive in India through the Sarvodaya movement, for which Vinobha Bhave has provided the spiritual leadership and Jayaprakash Narayan the political. Gandhi has provided the inspiration for religious and social activists in other parts of the world as well. These include Martin Luther King, Jr., and Joan Baez in the United States. E. M. Schumacher in England, Danilo Dolci in Sicily, Albert Luthuli in South Africa, Lanza del Vasto in France, and A.T. Ariyaratna in Sri Lanka.

2.1.1.6  People Power Non-Violent Revolt

        The "People Power" non-violent revolt of 1986 in the Philippines is noted here, although there is no proof of direct Gandhian influence in the Philippines. It is rather a phenomenal outcome of a series of events connected with the bloodless overthrow of the dictatorship imposed by President Ferdinand Marcos that had already lasted fourteen years (1972-1986).
        The catalyst of the revolt was a failed coup d'etat of reformist military officers, backed by high-ranking allies of the president who had withdrawn their support from him in spite of his claim that he won the "snap" presidential election against Cory Aquino. When the plot of the reformists was discovered, they faced the prospect of swift punishment from a vindictive strongman. The beleaguered putschists broadcast an appeal to the people to protect them by assembling on the streets and rallying to their cause. The Archbishop of Manila, Cardinal Jaime L. Sin, repeatedly put on the air by Radio Veritas, urged the people to respond; and they did so, turning out unarmed not only in the hundreds of thousands but in the millions.
        The revolt lasted only 77 hours. Marcos and his family fled and Corazon Aquino was sworn in as the president of the Republic of the Philippines on February 25, 1986, by virtue of the ratification of her election through the popular uprising. The live TV coverage made it possible for people all over the world to see the dramatic images of the peaceful revolt as it was happening. It is possible to argue that the phenomenon conditioned the minds and hearts of people in diverse parts of the globe, who later staged, not in such massive numbers nor always successfully, similar unarmed revolts against impossible odds.

2.1.1.7  Populist Organizations/Movements

2.1.1.7.1  Trade Unionism

        The British brought trade unions to their colonies in Asia, and soon they proliferated in the whole region, adapting to local conditions. Basically, a trade union is an association of wage earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment. The power of trade unions depends on the solidarity of the workers. This is seen in the strong bonds of fellowship among members, their dependence on one another, their readiness to support one another in adverse times of life. Because of membership in a trade union, laborers are no longer just suppliants pleading for justice, but strong people presenting demands which they have the power to enforce. For some employers this is a frightening thing; but most people would admit that trade unions are a salutary feature of modern industrial life. Before trade unions came on the scene, workers had to labor under unparalleled servitude, poverty and degradation, while the governing elite failed to realize their plight.
        Charges of tyranny, intimidation and violence have sometimes been brought against trade unions. In the course of time, however, abuses have been minimized by wise legislation and appropriate legal actions.

2.1.1.7.2  Community Organizations

        For lack of a better term, "community organizations" is used to designate Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Peoples' Organizations (POs) and Cause-Oriented Groups (COGs). These have proliferated in the democratic societies of Asia. Their phenomenal expansion is a response to a number of social stimuli. These include the economics of professional resources, increasing problem complexity (which diminishes the credibility of professional expertise), increased capabilities among local populations, and the growth of an ideology that is distrustful of government and favorable to indigenous initiatives.

2.1.2  Social Development

        In many countries of Asia, a small elite class controls most of the country's resources. This is the single greatest barrier to solving the problems of widespread poverty and inequality. Past efforts at dealing with poverty have focused primarily on the psychological deficiencies of the poor (lack of motivation, cognitive skill, beliefs, job skills, etc.), and on their immediate social conditions (ghetto life and the associated lack of community agencies, medical care, proper diets, etc.). It had been assumed that by changing the attitudes of the poor and their immediate environment one will provide them with a greater opportunity for upward mobility into the blue- and white-collar classes.
        The major deficiency in these efforts is that they tend to ignore the overall structure of socio-economic inequality, as well as the political and cultural conditions supporting this inequality. This structure and its socio-cultural supports affect not just the poor, but all segments of society. The rich and affluent are able to transmit their privileges, whereas the less affluent will have great difficultly becoming socially mobile.
        How are income and wealth to be re-distributed? How are well-entrenched cultural beliefs favoring the rich and discriminating against the poor to be changed? How are opportunities to be made more equal? Such questions are not easily answered. More importantly, any proposed answer will encounter severe resistance from those who believe that their benefits from the current system are threatened. In addition, any innovative program will always have unanticipated consequences that will create new problems and subvert the goals of the system.
        The good news is that all over Asia, drawing from their cultural and religious sources, people are looking ways and means to eradicate poverty. In this search, one must acknowledge the contributions of social scientists who have banded together in some of the social institutes and centers in different parts of Asia.

2.1.3  Confucian Principles of Management

        Taking their cue from Confucius ( born in 550 B.C.), many East Asian managers use two mechanisms in resolving conflicts and maintaining social order in East Asian societies.
        In-group/out-group: The family -- the most basic political, economic and social unit in Confucianism -- served as a model for structuring almost every form of secondary group, including the largest and most extensive -- the nation-state. To attain the goals of the collectivity, interpersonal conflicts had to be avoided at all costs. This resulted in highly regulated patterns of interpersonal relationships -- deference to authority, responsibility in leadership, self-abnegation, emotional restraint and a cooperative spirit. The motivation behind the willing and voluntary compliance to such a rigid code of conduct was the hope of direct rewards from group membership.
        On the practical level, the "in-group" distinction is simply a necessary means to a desirable end -- goal attainment. However, this distinction is not sufficient to create the commonality of interests among widely divergent groups needed to achieve an integrated and harmonious society. To accomplish this an equally-important East-Asian institution was necessary -- the "private/public" mechanism.
        Public/Private: Socially "public" refers to public appearance, or rather, the behavioral manifestation of the inner self; "private" refers to the emotions. East-Asians perceive the line between public and private to be arbitrary. In the innermost circle of social relationships, individuals do not have to suppress their emotions. Nevertheless, private feelings are subordinate to formal duties and obligations. Thus, one has to be highly sensitive to the emotions of group-members, without negating the inevitability of responsibility. The leader must carefully balance his use of authority as mediator and arbitrator with a readiness to extend his understanding. As a result, leaders often find themselves engineering consent to ensure that good feelings are maintained, rather than implementing decisions. Maintaining the public appearance of in-group harmony sometimes is an end itself, occasionally overshadowing goal attainment.
        If the in-group/ out-group distinction determines the legitimacy of conflict, the public/private dimension, in the sense of subordination of self-interest to the common good, imposes a superordinate goal for conflict resolution. It is this justification that has been so noteworthy in the encouragement of active collaboration of conflictual groups. Since social order and stability are highly desired by all but cannot be attained by groups that have clashes and disagreements, it is primarily the responsibility of those who enjoy the position of superiority in any given relationship to draw effectively upon the superordinate goal to provide a sense of purpose and direction (Theodora Tin Chao).

2.2  Economic Attempts and Ecological Care

2.2.1  Cooperatives

        Economic cooperation in one form or another has been, from time immemorial, an essential element of village life everywhere. However, cooperatives as a world-wide movement based on mutual aid in the conduct of economic enterprises, and on a social theory which finds expression in these enterprises, began in Britain and in France in the 1820s. In particular, the world-wide cooperative movement has acknowledged its origins in the "Pioneers Equitable Society," founded in Rochdale, England, in 1844. By 1937 Asia had 167,554 formally organized cooperatives with close to fifteen million members; and in 1948 they had grown to 322,549 cooperative societies with close to twenty-nine million members.
        The cooperative form of organization has long been recognized as an instrument for self-help and for social and economic reconstruction. It is fundamentally a way of organizing people to achieve some mutually desired end. It has therefore been used by leaders in depressed areas to revitalize a stagnant economy. Cooperatives have from the beginning helped to educate people to conduct their affairs on a formal plane, and to acquire habits of dealing with others in a responsible manner. Active participation in cooperatives or credit unions, which are organizations typically by and for the common people, gives them experience in handling affairs, and self-confidence in dealing with others; and thus trains them to take part effectively in other realms of social and political life.

2.2.2  Grameen Bank

        The Grameen Bank of Bangladesh, distinct from cooperative banks, deserves special mention because of its great success in encouraging small entrepreneurs who are given loans without a collateral. "Grameen" in the Bengali language means "village." The "Village or Rural Bank" was the fruit of a research done by Prof. Muhammad Yunus, professor of economics at Chittagong University, in 1976, after a severe famine in Bangladesh. His hypothesis was: If financial resources could be made available to the rural poor on reasonable terms and conditions, then they could generate productive self-employment and will need no further assistance. His project became a full-fledged bank in September 1983. His efforts have been replicated since then in other countries, notably in the Philippines.

2.2.3  Ecological Care

        It is an imperative need that humankind maintain a healthy relationship with the earth, and with all nature. As a result of not usually recognizing that need, human societies have an inherent tendency to overshoot the limits that should be set by their resources, and to discount the cumulative but delayed consequences of environmental damage. From the beginning of civilization in Mesopotamia until the present, human societies have time and again altered the ecosystem by technological and organizational means, thereby making available increased human sustenance at first, but eventually bending the system beyond its sustainable limits and reducing its human carrying capacity.
        By the time the United Nations convened its Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment in 1972, three important conclusions about humankind's relationship to the biosphere had become apparent to researchers: (1) Within the next century, present trends of industrialization, pollution, resource depletion, food production and population growth would reach the limits of our planetary environment, and these limits would turn the trends around resulting in a sudden and uncontrollable decline in human numbers and industrialization; (2) It is still possible to opt for a state of sustainable equilibrium instead of continuing these environment-damaging trends; (3) The sooner the world begins to pursue this alternative, the greater the chance of success (Meadows, et al., 1972).
        In the final analysis, the problem of environmental protection is this: How to induce members of human societies to opt for a state of sustainable equilibrium, instead of continuing environment-damaging trends in ecosystem exploitation. Asian societies, due to their cultural and religious heritage of communion with nature and love for "mother earth," are better equipped than Western societies to cope with this problem.

2.2.4  ASEAN / AFTA / APEC / SAFTA

        Although they had common problems of socio-economic development, the countries of East Asia, because of their different colonial histories, pursued their own paths after World War II. Then, in 1955, mutual attempts to come together and work out solutions to common problems gave birth to the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). In 1967 East-Asian countries agreed (1) to promote economic, social and cultural development, (2) maintain political and economic stability within the region, and (3) provide a forum for the resolution of intra-regional differences. Although loosely banded together, ASEAN members were able to significantly maintain a Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (ZPFN) in this part of the world. Moreover, East Asia is now a leading economic block and a center of economic growth and industrialization. This is due, in part, to its sharing of technological information and trained human resources.
        As a boost to the regional economy, intra-ASEAN travel and tourism was stimulated by a limited waiver of visa requirements among members. As a further step, an ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) is being planned.
        A more recent regional grouping is the expanded membership of ASEAN, which already has seven members and may soon include ten. There now exists the Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). Formed in 1989, APEC aims at reducing trade barriers among member countries of the Pacific Rim, harmonizing domestic regulations for safety, quality and environmental standards, building a sense of trust and mutually beneficial interdependence. Being a much bigger block, APEC will prepare its members for the globalization of trade, and at the same time, provide greater protection and leverage for its members against the exploitative designs of the more developed countries of the world.
        As for the South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) though, there has not been any significant economic cooperation similar to that of the ASEAN countries. Nevertheless, this body of South Asian nations is intent today on moving in the direction of greater economic exchange and cooperation. A sign of this resolve is the recent floating of the project of SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area), to be realized within a decade.

2.3  Educational and Cultural Efforts

2.3.1  Institutions of Learning

        Formal education is a continuation of the socialization process begun in the family. As societies become more complex, family members are less able to teach their children all that is necessary to be an adult in society. The functions of education include the transmission of the culture to children; the acculturation of immigrants; training for adult status in the community, the workplace and the family ; maintenance of the education system and the development of new knowledge.
        Schooling in Asia, as in other parts of the world, is both an avenue of upward mobility and a support of the status quo. The educational system is itself a stratified hierarchy of private and public schools, elite universities and community colleges, vocational schools and research centers.
        Schools also constitute a microsystem of a society's goals, values, rules, roles and expectations. Students in both urban and suburban schools learn about competition, success and failure, as they interact among themselves and with their teachers.
        Educational systems are linked to other social institutions, and have become a major arena in the socio-political and economic struggles for progress, justice, peace and harmony. Changes are taking place at all levels of the educational systems in practically all Asian countries to make them more responsive to the fast-growing pace of modern life.

2.3.2  Mass Media and Computer Networks

        Traditional religious communities have shaped personal and social ethics for their members. Yet television in the late twentieth century also offers a far-reaching and powerful medium through which persons, directly or indirectly, derive information about right and fitting actions. Video-evangelists are quite explicit in advocating and attempting to organize support for or resistance to certain policies. But the medium can be used by so-called liberal or conservative, reactionary or progressive, individuals or groups, to champion their causes.
        From one perspective, television appears to be neutral and so can be used for a variety of causes. To some extent this is correct. However, the production and management of television communication involve such large financial investments that there are many segments of Asian peoples, and indeed of the world population, who do not have the means to enter telecommunications as producers.
        For this reason, radio has begun to re-emerge as an important source for communication and social orientation in poorer, less-developed countries. The rural and urban poor are making greater use of this and other less expensive and more easily managed media. Simple audiovisual materials, newspapers, and radio systems have been developed through Church, labor and grassroots groups.
        For those who can afford them, computers have made information accessible with an ease previously undreamt of, for example, through linkages like "internet." Computer network use actually travels on a communication highway at more than the speed of light. This, too, is a neutral ground. It can be used for many excellent pursuits, but it can also open the floodgates for such things as pornography at the click of a button.

2.4  Religious and Church Efforts

        Religion is found: 1) where there is an awareness of and an interest in the permanent and recurring problems of human existence; 2) where rites and shared beliefs relevant to that awareness exist; and 3) where there are groups organized to heighten that awareness and to teach and maintain those rites and beliefs. Religion thus fulfills both individual and group needs. Many religions also serve a "cooling-out" function: their beliefs and rituals can soften anger at injustice.
        Most belief systems assume that one and only one creed reflects the truth. If each belief system is the Word, then others must be false. Moreover, those who possess the one and only truth feel obliged to spread it. Thus, there is always potential conflict among those who hold different beliefs. Because there is little room for compromise, religious wars have often been among the most bloody and long-lasting.
        As for Christianity, it should be admitted that, for centuries, missionaries and colonial administrators in Asia have tried to "convert" "the heathen" by imposing Western ways of life and thought, barring some laudable exceptions. Missionaries converted the indigenous people, but in so doing, have often seriously undermined the value and dignity of these cultures, if not completely destroyed them.
        The Second Vatican Council did a great service for harmony in Asia and the world through its documents that touched upon religion: Ad Gentes, or the Decree on the Church's Missionary Activity, Unitatis Redintegratio, or the Decree on Ecumenism, Nostra Aetate, or the Declaration on the Relationship of the Church to Non-Christian Religions, and Dignitatis Humanae, or the Declaration on Religious Liberty. Because of new orientations in these and subsequent documents from the Vatican on interreligious and ecumenical matters, there is now greater hope that religions in Asia will be a resource for promoting harmony.
        The Federation of Asian Bishops' Conferences (FABC), organized 25 years ago as part of the renewal desired by the Second Vatican Council, has resolutely urged the Catholic Churches of Asia to be committed to a triple dialogue: with people of other faiths, with the cultures of Asia and the with the poor. We also find the Christian Conference of Asia (CCA) working assiduously to create a more fraternal climate for religions and Churches in Asia.

        However, one may define culture, it is safe to say that it contains two basic aspects: an immanent in-depth aspect and the external manifestations of this immanent aspect. The immanent aspect can be seen as the inner formation of the mind, a way of experiencing, thinking and feeling. The external manifestations of culture have their roots in this bedrock, manifesting it in mental and physical reactions and activities that shape human behavior. There is an intimate link between the two aspects, one is not simply a layer on the top of the other. Furthermore, neither is static. Both are subject to modification, partly resulting from the continual exchange between the two levels. However, changes in the immanent aspect take place at a much slower rate than on the external level, resulting in a sense of stability and continuity which give the person a stable cultural identity. People take their culture for granted and always see themselves as members of a specific community, sharing a common language, a set of customs and a way of life. Hence, one tends to measure everything by the standards of one's own culture or ethos. Ethnocentrism is a characteristic of all human beings.
        At the same time, it is impossible to speak of ethnocentrism without pointing to cultural relativity. There exist many cultural forms through which ethnocentrism expresses and opposes itself to other cultures. Hence, ethnocentrism is a very natural phenomenon and is not per se negative. By the same token, a world culture shared by everyone is an impossibility.
        Sensitivity to the sacred is something that belongs to the immanent aspect of culture and results in what can be called "religious experience." It is profoundly subjective, and insofar as it manifests itself in structured ways results in a religion or a philosophy of life. Both are objectifications of the subjective religious experience. The structures may be of various types: myths, creeds, theologies, philosophical systems, rituals, festivals, etc. They reflect the experience of the sacred from within the many different cultural contexts, and this explains the multiplicity of religions and philosophies that try to explain notions such as "being," "meaning" and "truth." When saying that religions and philosophies of life are objectifications, one should remember that they are not totally an objectification, because the practitioner is the subjective individual or social group. It is also clear that they are not only one segment of a culture but pervade it. Hence, religious experience, religion and a philosophy of life are inherently and integrally human.

3.1.1  The Element of Change

        Changes in either the external manifestations of culture or its immanent core have repercussions on religious experience and, hence, on religions and philosophies of life. Moreover, since all the aspects of culture are interrelated, any change in religious experience, religions and views of life and the world have an effect on the total culture. A good example of this is provided by Buddhism. The experience and the teaching of the historical Buddha and his followers gradually affected the existing cultures so that the final result was the creation of what we call today the Buddhist culture of South East Asia, China, Korea and Japan. At the same time, the immanent aspect of these cultures spontaneously transformed Buddhism itself into South East Asian, Korean, Chinese and Japanese Buddhism. On the other hand, a culture can become disoriented or simply refuse a religion other than its own, especially if this incoming religion presents itself as extremely complex or inflexible, i.e., unwilling to be influenced by the culture.

3.1.2  Culture, Change and Harmony

        Cultures have many interacting dimensions. Each has its own role in producing a harmonious whole, much like the various petals of a multi-colored flower. Certain dimensions or aspects lie on the exterior and are more easily affected by change, but a change that is rather superficial. Others lie more closely to the core, or the immanent aspect of culture, and are more impervious to change. If they do change, they have a more profound influence on the whole culture. Technology, for example, is not the deepest element of a culture, and its influence, when introduced from outside does not necessarily destroy or even profoundly affect a culture. This is perhaps more true in Asia which is a continent with extremely strong and highly developed cultures. Japan, which has felt the strong impact of modern technology for nearly a hundred years, maintains a marvelous cultural continuity, linking its centuries-old tradition with modernity. Something similar has happened in India, and is being repeated today in other countries of Asia. In the whole of the Far East where Western democratic ideas have been introduced, the backbone of public and private life remains, consciously or unconsciously, deeply colored by Confucianism or other similar traditions.
        At the very core of these cultures lies a basic component that ensures ongoing cultural integrity or harmony. This core is composed of the religious experience of the people and the corresponding religions and philosophies resulting from these experiences.

3.2  Harmony in Some Asian Religions, Philosophies and Views of Life

3.2.1  Harmony and "Primal Religions" *
 

        Although there are countless primal religions, they share quite similar world-views, value systems, social, political and cultural structures, beliefs and taboos, which enable us to speak to some degree of the universal characteristics of the primal religions.
        Primal religions have a great sensitivity to the fundamental harmony that makes no distinction between the Sacred and the profane, between matter and spirit. They speak in myths and are very receptive to symbols that for them reveal the deepest and total reality. Myths and symbols are the bearers of messages from a trans-historical world and reveal salvation. They turn the cosmos into one great revelation of the Sacred. Primal religions are the religions of the transparently sacred. The creative acts of the gods and their works are the foundation of all life and truth. The ancestors have been appointed by the gods to be the custodians of the way life should be lived. Therefore, harmony among the gods, ancestors and the living ones is the guarantee of society. The beginning of all disharmony is to be found in not doing what the gods have been doing from the very beginning. The order created by them has to be respected. This is valid for the life of the individual, the nuclear family, the extended family and the clan. The supreme law is to do what is decreed and what was done by the gods and ancestors. Only then can society prosper. The sanction for not following the laws, the deeds and the customs of the gods and ancestors is that everything and everybody is brought to the brink of chaos -- the reverse of harmony.
        Many of these concepts of the primal religions are also basic to the great traditions which merely present them in a more academic or abstract form. Furthermore, many people who identify themselves as members of a so-called Great Tradition in fact live their lives at the level of a modified primal religion. Moreover, there also exist modern primal religions, such as Shinto, or "the way of the gods." From early times the Japanese attitude towards nature and the universe has been shaped by its understanding that all beings, plants, animals and man, even inanimate things like rocks, rivers and man-made utensils, are endowed with spiritual powers which have to be respected and honored. To be in harmony with the various spiritual powers is a basic obligation. Shintoism is a continuation in modern form of what it means to be Japanese in terms of tradition, mentality, belonging and identity.
        Though there is a certain universality of primal religion throughout Asia, a given primary religion is, by its very nature, limited to those who belong to the ethnic or cultural group.

3.2.2  Hinduism

        Harmonious integration of the whole and the parts at all levels (cosmic, social and individual) marks the quintessence of the Hindu quest. The Hindu way and view of life, its ethos, values, goals, etc., are all permeated, colored and governed by this ideal. At the cosmic level, the world is sustained by rta -- a harmonious order which is necessary to maintain the general well-being of the entire reality (lokasamgraha).
        Society is upheld by the order of dharma* through which its various constituent parts are "held together." An individual person on his/her part is maintained in proper order by truth (satya). All three orders (cosmic, social, individual) are mutually interdependent, in such a way that the disruption of cosmic order would spell doom, not only for the cosmos but for society and individuals, as well. It is to be noted here that the ethical or moral order is not something independent of this inner order of reality with its various levels and constituent parts. In fact, dharma means order as well as righteousness and justice. In the popular Hindu belief, if dharma is upheld, then nature will continue to flourish and yield fruits, whereas violating it (a-dharma) will bring the age of darkness (kaliyuga), with natural calamities and cataclysms.
 

        Hinduism leads us then to the realization that the cosmic, social and moral order meet, blend and flow one into the other. For Hinduism, the harmonious order in which unity and plurality are blended together is not only inextricably bound to the ethical realm of justice, but in a way is its very source. Harmony is justice; even more, it is the source of justice. The Third FABC Bishops' Institute for Interreligious Dialogue (BIRA III), held in Madras, November 20, 1982, explains harmony as follows:

Wholeness and order may be said to characterize Hindu culture, especially in the various arts, in the raga (melody) and tala (rhythm), in the karanas (postures) and mudras (gestures and dance), and in the micro-cosmic profusion of temple architecture. This integral humanism goes beyond all dualism between body and soul, sacred and secular, person and world. The concept of dharma seeks to recreate this wholeness, tarnished by various alienations caused by avidya (ignorance), anawa (egoism) and kama (attachment). Contemporary socio-cultural and economic realities have strengthened this alienation (n. 14).

        According to the historical Buddha the major characteristic of human life is suffering. The Buddha taught that we are but bundles of continuously changing elements, without being supported by a central, permanent core or self. In our ignorance we imagine that we are a self. This is an illusion and the cause of all suffering in the world. The ultimate goal is to reach the state where we have extinguished all desire to be a self (nirvana). The Buddha's teaching is contained in the Four Noble Truths: there is suffering; there is a cause or origin of suffering; there is an end of suffering, and there is a path out of suffering. This is his Dharma: the ultimate truth towards which his life and experience point. Enlightenment consists in a direct, dynamic experience of this dharma brought about by following the "Eight-Fold Path," which culminates in intense meditation and contemplation.
        In the Mahayana tradition the historical Buddha becomes identified with the goal he reached: the Ultimate No-Self, or Absolute Emptiness. He becomes transformed into the absolute principle, called the Buddha-nature. The human task is to follow the example of the historical Buddha and to reach this ultimate state of emptiness, which is stillness, quietness and limitless rest, but a dynamic stillness which reaches out in compassion to all living beings still in the throes of suffering.
        At the core of Buddhism is the internal and external balance which should be a way of life. Isolated materialistic development is disastrous. Human development has to come first. Dharma is to be spread in all its aspects, and a holistic approach to development is needed.

3.2.4  Islam

        "Islam" comprises a fourteen-century-old religious, political, cultural and economic "system," with almost one billion adherents, covering the enormous area from West Africa to Indonesia in the East, from Central Asia in the North, down to the south of East Africa. It is a complex amalgam of religious and cultural entities, with a large variety, at times, of conflicting aspects.
        Today, we are aware that we live in a pluralistic world and we try to understand other religions and traditions. Like the Bible, the Qur'an states that God has created many nations and tribes: "We have created you from one male and female, and made you into different nations and tribes that you may know one another."
        "Harmony" in the Muslim community appears in the deliberation called Shura, deliberation or consultation, in which no one may impose his or her will on others, and which is to be protected until in one way or another those involved arrive at a decision agreed upon by all. The principle of a majority overruling opinions of minorities is rejected by many Muslims. In this common agreement, within the ideal of unity of the entire Muslim community, the opinion of the majority has to take account of that of the minority.
        Another expression of "harmony" is found where religious plurality is recognized; where Muslims manifest desire for dialogue with people of other religious convictions, for a common forum in order to search together for the solution of common problems or to strive for common goals; or solidarity within humanity (Ukhuwah basyariyah), based on common needs and responsibility for universal well-being and for human dignity in general, the "environmental" aspect of religiosity. (See the oft-quoted Qur'an verse: "To you your religion and to me my religion," (Al-Kafirun, v.6).
        In our search for understanding of each other, we emphasize what we Muslims and Christians hold in common. We believe that God has spoken to humankind. The two traditions ' give prominence to community. Islam acknowledges Christians as Ahl alKitab, people of the Book.
        Above all, Islam presents itself as inner submission to God. Islam recognizes that Christians too believe in God and give themselves to the service of God. The two religions come together in their understanding of the love and service of the neighbor. Islam and Christianity, therefore, find themselves on the road to reconciliation when they acknowledge that they are different and respect each other's differences. They may not be able to accept each other's doctrines and ways of worshipping and devotion, but the greatest thing is to have humility before God. We share a common humanity and our common search for God and his holy will. This was recognized at the end of the fifth series of FABC Bishops' Institutes for Interreligious Dialogue (BIRA V/1), when it was stated that harmony would come when Muslims and Christians remain united to the will of God for humankind and creation as found in the Qur'an and the New Testament (Final Statement: "Working Together for Harmony in God's World," Asia Focus, November 13th, 1992, p.8).
        With regard to forgiveness and reconciliation at the grass-roots level there is the common custom of making peace in a public rite of reconciliation. As the Gospel preaches forgiveness and love of enemies (Mt 5:44-45), the Qur'an too urges forgiveness and reconciliation: "The recompense for an injury is an injury equal thereto; but if a person forgives and makes reconciliation, his reward is due from Allah … " (Surah XLII:40). Although the past has been marked by misunderstanding and hurts, and even at present there are conflicts and fights, Muslims and Christians can come together in good will and mutual forgiveness and reconciliation.

3.2.5  Chinese Traditions

3.2.5.1  Harmony as Means and Ideal in Chinese Life.

        In the ancient Chinese military strategy there was a saying known by everyone and still used today which means: to achieve a victory there are three factors listed in an ascendant way: Tien-shih, Dili, Jenhe -- "good weather, advantageous locality, human harmony." The message of the phrase is: the harmony among ourselves is decisive in a war. In family life the Chinese say: Jia he wang shi hen -- "when there is harmony in a family, every thing will prosper." And in personal relationships it is said: he wei guei -- "harmony is the most precious thing." The shortcomings caused by this mentality of preserving harmony at all costs are: lack of a critical spirit, unwillingness to accept realities full of tensions and contrasts, resignation to the factual situation in order to save the minimal level of life. All this points to a much-needed correction to the concept of harmony, without renouncing its vitality which has served the vast Chinese population so well for so many centuries.
        Above and beyond the ordinary folk, who constitute the great majority of the Chinese people, there are several philosophical and religious currents which articulate the people's feelings and thoughts. All Chinese have these philosophical and religious currents in their blood, even today at the end of the 20th century. Within these currents harmony is coupled with "joy."

3.2.5.2  The Spirit of Joy

        The sense of harmony and joy towards life expresses well Chinese optimism towards life. Here again, "life" itself needs to be described and evaluated in all its degrees or scale of values.
        There are three main currents in Chinese philosophy: Confucianism, Taoism and Zen Buddhism. The spirit of joy runs through them all, although each has its own mode of joy. Generally speaking, the Confucian joy springs from the love of learning, the harmony of human relations, and the realization of one's humanity. The Taoist joy consists in untrammeled freedom and detachment from things mundane, in keeping oneself in tune and harmony with nature, in self-realization through self-loss. The joy of Zen is found in seeing one's true nature and thereby attaining enlightenment, in the pleasant surprise of self-discovery, in the harmonization of the this-worldly with the other-worldly. The idea of harmony is the keynote of all three types of joy. Where there is harmony, there is joy. Nothing can be more delightful than to study different philosophies of joy, to rejoice with each of them and finally try to harmonize them all.

3.2.5.3  Confucian Joy

        The very beginning of the Analects of Confucius radiates an atmosphere of joy. It sets the tone to the whole Confucian philosophy of life. It opens like this:

The Master said: Is it not a true delight to learn and to practice constantly what one has learned? Is it not a real joy to see friends coming from different places? Is it not characteristic of the gentleman not to be saddened, even when his qualities are not recognized by the world?

What belongs to the essential nature of man cannot be increased by the largeness of his sphere of action, nor diminished by the poverty and obscurity of his condition. For external things do not belong to his essential nature, which consists in humanity, justice, propriety and wisdom. These are rooted in his very heart; they manifest themselves as a mild harmony and radiant cheerfulness in the countenance, and a rich fullness in the back.

3.2.5.4  The Taoist Joy

        The Taoist vision is even more far-reaching than that of the Confucian. If the Confucian sees the oneness of the human family, the Taoist sees the oneness of the whole creation. If the Confucian finds his joy in the harmony of human relations, the Taoist finds his joy in the harmony of the individual with the Cosmos. Chuang Tzu, the greatest Taoist after Lao Tzu, has presented the essence of the Taoist vision when he declares: "The Cosmos and l were born together; and all things and I are one."
        If you understand that "all things belong to the treasure," the treasury of nature, and if you are one with nature, then the sun is yours, the moon is yours, the stars are yours, the whole universe is yours. The joy of the Taoist is the joy of non-attachment, of perfect freedom. If Confucian joy is the joy of fullness, Taoist joy is the joy of emptiness. The one comes from effort and action; the other springs from spontaneity and quiet contemplation. The one is human, the other cosmic. The one is like warm sunshine in a winter's day, the other is like cool showers in hot summer.
        Chuang Tzu said: "Human joy consists in being in harmony with men, while heavenly joy consists in being in harmony with Heaven." It was precisely because he was in harmony with Heaven, that he felt at home in Nature.

3.2.5.5  Joy in Zen Buddhism

        Buddhism used to be looked upon in the West as a pessimistic and nihilist philosophy of life. This is untrue of all Buddhism, and especially of the Mahayana school, with its positive conception of nirvana and its generous bodhisattva ideal of working in the world and refusing to enter nirvana before all beings are liberated. The joy of the bodhisattvas arises from bringing joy to others. Enlightened themselves, they desire to be instruments in enlightening others.
        Zen Buddhism inherited the generous Mahayana impulse, with its vast mental horizons. But so far as the content of its teaching and the mode of its thinking are concerned, it is essentially Chinese, being a vital attempt to reconcile Taoist Transcendentalism with Confucian Humanism. In a sense, Zen effected a tremendous revolution in Buddhism. The traditional Buddhist teaching is that the believers should rely on the Buddha, the Dharma (Law), and Sangha (the community of monks). Hui-neng, the founder of the Chinese Zen school, teaches that they should rather rely on Enlightenment, Rightness and Purity. In truth, this is a doctrine of self-reliance. His teaching may be summed up briefly in his own words: "Within, keep the mind in perfect harmony with the self-nature; without, respect all other men. This is reliance on oneself."
        According to Ch'ing-Yuan, a Zen master of the Sung period, there are two diseases to be avoided in the practice of Zen. "The first is to ride an ass in search of the very ass you are riding; the second is to ride the ass and refuse to dismount." It is easy to see the silliness of seeking the ass you are riding. The second disease is more subtle you are no longer seeking outside. You know that you are riding your own ass. You have already tasted an interior peace infinitely sweeter than any pleasures you can get from the external things. But you become so attached to it that you are bound to lose it altogether. This is what Ch'ing-Yuan meant by "riding the ass and refusing to dismount." This disease is common to contemplative souls in all religions.

3.3  Biblical Perspectives on Harmony

        The Bible is the word of God incarnated in human language. Since the language is very much conditioned by its cultural fabric, the reading and interpretation of the Bible will also depend on one's cultural vicissitudes. In fact, the biblical revelation, in many aspects, is congenial to Asian cultural thought patterns and approaches. After all, the Judaeo-Christian tradition is an Asian religious tradition. However, its reading and interpretation in the past have been very much determined by Western cultural approaches. The formulation of an Asian theology of harmony necessarily calls for a rereading of the biblical data on harmony from an Asian perspective.
        Though there is no such term as "harmony" in the Bible, the biblical term shalom (peace) comes closest to harmony. Besides, there are other terms like "covenant" (berith), "justice" (sedaka), "blessing" (beraka), "reconciliation" (katallage) and "communion" (koinonia), which represent the different aspects of harmony.

3.3.1  Original Harmony in Creation

        In the beginning God created heaven and earth in full harmony through his word (Jn 1:3). The biblical narrative of creation gives us two pictures of God creating this world in full harmony. The first picture is that of Genesis 1:1-4a. God created this world in full harmony; namely, there is order, hierarchy of values and mutual relationship of complementarity and service. The celestial bodies are "to divide day from night and indicate seasons, days and years" (Gen 1:14). All plants and trees are given to the humans -- male and female -- as their food (Gen 1:29). Human beings are created in the image of God and are put in command of all that was created before (Gen 1:26-28). The vocation of the human as the eikon of God was to be stewards of the Creator for the well-being and harmony of the whole universe.
        The second picture of creation in harmony describes it in terms of mutual relationships between human person and animals, between man and woman. "The man gives names to all the cattle, all the birds of heaven and all the wild beasts" (Gen 2:20a): each one was to bear the name the man would give it (Gen 2:19c). Between man and woman there was mutual trust and harmony. This trust and harmony between man and woman are more clearly and forcefully expressed through a primordial image of shame/no shame: "Both of them were naked, the man and his wife: but they felt no shame in front of each other" (Gen 2:29). Here is hidden the seed of future disharmony, when they will realize that they are naked (Gen 3:7).

3.3.1.1  Disharmony Caused By Sin

        The sin of Adam introduced disharmony into creation: "They heard the sound of the Lord God walking in the garden ... and the man and his wife hid themselves from the presence of the Lord" (Gen 3:8). From then on, it is the history of disharmony that dominates mutual relationships between man and woman (Gen 3), between brothers (Gen 4:12), between man and his fellowmen (Gen 4:23-24). The disharmony of human history, now called "the wickedness of humankind" (Gen 6-5), was so great, that "Yahweh regretted having made man on the earth" (Gen 6:7). The story of the flood (Gen. 7-8) shows how much the disharmony caused by human wickedness was disgusting to God.

3.3.1.2  From Disharmony to Harmony

        The history of God's salvific work of restoring harmony in Christ begins at the very moment when disharmony was introduced into the world of God's creation (Gen 3:14-15). The Flood which was the sign of disharmony with its devastating consequences was itself a purifying process. Through it God wanted to restore the primeval harmony of his creation: "As long as the earth lasts, sowing and reaping, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and night shall cease no more" (Gen 8:22). Furthermore, God established his covenant with Noah and his descendants, and "also with every living creature... birds, cattle and every wild beast" (Gen 9:9-10). The covenant with Noah, with the rainbow as its emblem, indicates God's intention of restoring harmony to the whole of creation.
        According to the Biblical story the whole of humankind, which was in harmony with one language, ended up in disharmony and scattered over the face of all the earth with a confusion of languages, owing to the attempt to build a tower with its top in the heavens (Gen 11:1-9). The story of the Tower of Babel symbolizes the disharmony caused by human sin. On the other hand, on Pentecost, people from every nation under heaven heard the apostles speaking about God's deeds of power in their own languages (Acts 2:5-11). The Pentecost event reveals the harmony